Headwords and examples

Graphic Representation of Headwords and Examples

The graphic representation of Ket in this dictionary is based on the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Headwords are presented in phonological transcription, while illustrative examples use a unified phonetic transcription that preserves dialectal variation.

Phonemes used in the phonological transcription:

• Vowels: a, e, i, ɨ, o, ə, u
• Consonants: b, d, h, j, k, l, m, n, ŋ, q, s, t

Allophones used in the phonetic transcription:

• Vowels: a, e, ɛ, i, ɨ, o, ɔ, ʌ, ə, u
• Consonants: b (p), d (r), h, j, k (g, ɣ), l, m, n, ŋ, q (ʁ, ɢ), s, t

This approach helps users understand how the Ket phonological system is realized in actual speech. For example, the phonetic transcription reflects such features as consonant palatalization, consonant devoicing, and neutral vowels in unstressed syllables of certain word forms.

Monosyllabic words with specific tonal structures are marked with special symbols (e.g., dɨˀ “cap”). When the tone of a monosyllabic headword, especially for function words, could not be identified, no tone marking is given.

Word stress in Ket usually falls on the first syllable and is unmarked in such cases. Stress is indicated only when it falls on another syllable. The so-called “left-headed” verbs often exhibit complex phonological structures consisting of two parts; in these cases, each part is marked with a stress symbol.

Deliberate vowel length is indicated with a length mark. However, vowel length in Ket is not considered a phonological feature (see Grammatical Sketch).

Determination of Headword Meaning

Meanings of polysemous Ket words are determined both by linguistically significant distinctions (e.g., differences in plural forms, compatibility, etc.) and by translation peculiarities. For example, according to E.A. Alekseenko, beˀb means ‘relatives by marriage of the speaker, husbands and wives of a bisep [sibling of the ego] who are older than the speaker’ (Alekseenko 1967: 159). In this dictionary, beˀb is given the following three meanings:

• uncle/aunt (elder sibling of either parent)
• sister-in-law (wife of an elder brother)
• brother-in-law (husband of an elder sister)

Each meaning is presented as a separate dictionary entry.

Lexical homonyms are marked with Arabic subscript numbers immediately following the headword, e.g.:

• saˀl₁ ‘crucian’
• saˀl₂ ‘blade’
• saˀl₃ ‘tobacco’

For verbal headwords, such numbers usually indicate identical stem formulas rather than true lexical homonyms; these verbs often differ in actual phonetic realization.

Headwords with different tone patterns are not considered homonyms, e.g.:

• sūl ‘blood’
• suˀl ‘Siberian white salmon’
• súùl ‘sledge’
• sùl ‘hook (for hanging a cradle)’

Grammatical homonyms related to different parts of speech and multifunctional words are marked with Roman numbers, e.g.:

• sēl I adj ‘bad’
• sēl II adv ‘badly’
• aŋ⁷-k⁵-[s⁴]-[n²]-t~a⁰ I vt2 MOM ‘smn ties smn/smth with a rope’
• aŋ⁷-k⁵-[s⁴]-[n²]-t~a⁰ II v5 MOM REFL ‘smn ties hself’

Different syntactic functions of an action nominal are also marked as grammatical homonyms, e.g.:

• adoŋ I ‘biting’ (nominal)
• adoŋ II ‘biting’ (attributive)
• adoŋ III ‘to bite’ (infinitive)

Grammatical Characteristics of Headwords

Each headword is explicitly identified by its part of speech (see Abbreviations).

Nouns

Nouns belong to different gender classes and have plural forms, e.g.:

• kassad neut, kassadaŋ ‘sole’

Absence of class or plural labels indicates these could not be identified for that word.

Adjectives

A few Ket adjectives show number agreement with nouns; in such cases, the plural form is given. Otherwise, only the part of speech is labeled:

• qà I adj, qaˀŋ ‘big’

In most cases the same form can modify both nouns and verbs, which is considered grammatical homonymy:

• aqta I adj ‘good’
• aqta II adv ‘well’

Ket nouns may also be used attributively; this usage is likewise regarded as grammatical homonymy:

• ā₁ I ‘heat’
• ā₁ II ‘hot’

Adverbs

In addition to qualitative forms, which typically function as both adjectives and adverbs, there are adverbs expressing other semantic categories (degree, place, time, manner, etc.) that lack homonymic adjective counterparts, e.g.:

• qām adv ‘soon’

Pronouns

Pronoun classes are indicated by abbreviations, e.g.:

• ād pron pers ‘I’
• āb pron poss ‘my’

Pronouns that show gender-class distinctions are marked accordingly in the grammatical information section, e.g.:

• tūd pron dem masc ‘his’

Numerals

The dictionary lists cardinal numbers and certain ordinal numbers, the latter being formed according to common patterns. Among cardinals, only one through seven, ten, twenty, and hundred are simple lexical units; others are compound phrases with hyphens:

• ā₂ num ‘six’
• ā-qō num ‘sixty’ (lit. six-ten)
• ā-kiˀ num ‘six hundred’ (lit. six-hundred)

The numeral one has distinct forms for animate (qɔˀk) and inanimate (qūs) classes.

Postpositions, Conjunctions, Particles, Interjections

These invariable functional words are labeled by part of speech and category. Homonymous adpositions and conjunctions are treated as grammatical homonyms, e.g.:

• baŋdiŋa I adp ‘till, until, to’
• baŋdiŋa II conj ‘where’

Action Nominals

Ket non-finite forms traditionally called “infinitives” differ significantly from Indo-European infinitives; hence, they are labeled “action nominals”. Their main functions are nominal, attributive, and infinitive. These uses are qualified as grammatical homonymy, e.g.:

• abeskij I ‘straying’
• abeskij II ‘straying, strayed’
• abeskij III ‘stray’

Boundaries between these functions are often unclear, e.g., aŋter abɨŋa bə̄n nara can be translated as ‘I do not need to torment (myself) [It is not necessary for me to torment (myself)]’ (infinitive function) or ‘I do not need tormenting’ (nominal function).

There are lexical pairs where an action nominal denotes a process and a noun denotes the result of that process. Such pairs are treated as lexical homonyms, e.g.:

• idiŋ₁ n ‘ornament, drawing’: εslʲadiŋt aqta iriŋ iriŋuksʲat ‘a good drawing is drawn on the paper’
• idiŋ₂ I anom ‘drawing, writing’: ēnʲ āb iriŋ binut ‘now my writing / drawing ended’

Verbs

Verbal headwords differ from other citation forms: they use a special hyphenated stem formula (based on E. Vajda’s position class model; see Grammatical Sketch). The formula includes all morphemes except agreement markers (and epenthetic elements), with superscript numerals showing position classes, e.g.:

• ikbes⁷-a⁴-[l²]-bed~ked⁰ ‘smn arrives’

The stem’s agreement configuration (subject/object markers) is indicated by abbreviations with numbers (vi1, vt1, vk, etc.; see Grammatical Sketch). Further abbreviations indicate morphosemantic stem types (e.g., ‘iter’ = iterative, ‘incept’ = inceptive).

Headword Translations

Ket lexeme meanings are conveyed via English, Russian, and German translations. Each distinct meaning is presented as a separate dictionary entry, with one or more translational equivalents, e.g.:

• daˀl ‘tendon, sinew’

Verbal headword translations are given in a “phrasal” format, e.g.:

• ed(a)⁷-q⁵-a⁴-[l²]-dа⁰ ‘smn sends smn/smth’

This format clarifies complex verb structures and avoids ambiguities (such as animacy constraints).

If a subject or object is animate in Ket but not in the target language, the translation follows the Ket source, e.g.:

• en⁷-t⁵-[l²]-da⁰ ‘smn buttons smn (a button)’

When a translation does not fully capture all semantic or pragmatic nuances, explanatory comments are provided in parentheses. These comments offer either further specifications or relevant encyclopedic/ethnographic information, e.g.:

• tantab ‘handle (of a bucket, of a cauldron)’
• pɨmul ‘pymel (Ket ethnic musical instrument, a kind of mouth harp)’